The Complete IB Chemistry Syllabus: SL and HL

• "Qualitative data includes all non-numerical information obtained from observations not from measurement."
• "Quantitative data are obtained from measurements, and are always associated with random errors/uncertainties, determined by the apparatus, and by human limitations such as reaction times."
• "Propagation of random errors in data processing shows the impact of the uncertainties on the final result."
• "Experimental design and procedure usually lead to systematic errors in measurement, which cause a deviation in a particular direction."
• "Repeat trials and measurements will reduce random errors but not systematic errors."

• "Graphical techniques are an effective means of communicating the effect of an independent variable on a dependent variable, and can lead to determination of physical quantities."
• "Sketched graphs have labeled but unscaled axes, and are used to show qualitative trends, such as variables that are proportional or inversely proportional."
• "Drawn graphs have labeled and scaled axes, and are used in quantitative measurements."

• "The degree of unsaturation or index of hydrogen deficiency (IHD) can be used to determine from a molecular formula the number of rings or multiple bonds in a molecule."
• "Mass spectrometry (MS), proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H NMR) and infrared spectroscopy (IR) are techniques that can be used to help identify compounds and to determine their structure."

• "In an emission spectrum, the limit of convergence at higher frequency corresponds to the first ionization energy."
• "Trends in first ionization energy across periods account for the existence of main energy levels and sub-levels in atoms."
• "Successive ionization energy data for an element give information that shows relations to electron configurations."

• "Transition elements have variable oxidation states, form complex ions with ligands, have coloured compounds, and display catalytic and magnetic properties."
• "Zn is not considered to be a transition element as it does not form ions with incomplete d-orbitals."
• "Transition elements show an oxidation state of +2 when the s-electrons are removed."

• "The d sub-level splits into two sets of orbitals of different energy in a complex ion."
• "Complexes of d-block elements are coloured, as light is absorbed when an electron is excited between the d-orbitals."
• "The colour absorbed is complementary to the colour observed."

• "Covalent bonds result from the overlap of atomic orbitals. A sigma bond (σ) is formed by the direct head-on/end-to-end overlap of atomic orbitals, resulting in electron density concentrated between the nuclei of the bonding atoms. A pi bond (π) is formed by the sideways overlap of atomic orbitals, resulting in electron density above and below the plane of the nuclei of the bonding atoms."
• "Formal charge (FC) can be used to decide which Lewis (electron dot) structure is preferred from several. The FC is the charge an atom would have if all atoms in the molecule had the same electronegativity. FC = (Number of valence electrons)-½(Number of bonding electrons)-(Number of non-bonding electrons). The Lewis (electron dot) structure with the atoms having FC values closest to zero is preferred."
• "Exceptions to the octet rule include some species having incomplete octets and expanded octets."
• "Delocalization involves electrons that are shared by/between all atoms in a molecule or ion as opposed to being localized between a pair of atoms."
• "Resonance involves using two or more Lewis (electron dot) structures to represent a particular molecule or ion. A resonance structure is one of two or more alternative Lewis (electron dot) structures for a molecule or ion that cannot be described fully with one Lewis (electron dot) structure alone."

• "A hybrid orbital results from the mixing of different types of atomic orbitals on the same atom."

• "Representative equations (eg M^+(g) → M^+(aq)) can be used for enthalpy/energy of hydration, ionization, atomization, electron affinity, lattice, covalent bond and solution."
• "Enthalpy of solution, hydration enthalpy and lattice enthalpy are related in an energy cycle."

• "Entropy (S) refers to the distribution of available energy among the particles. The more ways the energy can be distributed the higher the entropy."
• "Gibbs free energy (G) relates the energy that can be obtained from a chemical reaction to the change in enthalpy (ΔH), change in entropy (ΔS), and absolute temperature (T)."
• "Entropy of gas>liquid>solid under same conditions."

• "Reactions may occur by more than one step and the slowest step determines the rate of reaction (rate determining step/RDS)."
• "The molecularity of an elementary step is the number of reactant particles taking part in that step."
• "The order of a reaction can be either integer or fractional in nature. The order of a reaction can describe, with respect to a reactant, the number of particles taking part in the rate-determining step."
• "Rate equations can only be determined experimentally."
• "The value of the rate constant (k) is affected by temperature and its units are determined from the overall order of the reaction."
• "Catalysts alter a reaction mechanism, introducing a step with lower activation energy."

Activation energy (HL ONLY)

• "The Arrhenius equation uses the temperature dependence of the rate constant to determine the activation energy."
• "A graph of 1/T against ln k is a linear plot with gradient – Ea / R and intercept, lnA."
• "The frequency factor (or pre-exponential factor) (A) takes into account the frequency of collisions with proper orientations."

• "Le Châtelier's principle for changes in concentration can be explained by the equilibrium law."
• "The position of equilibrium corresponds to a maximum value of entropy and a minimum in the value of the Gibbs free energy."
• "The Gibbs free energy change of a reaction and the equilibrium constant can both be used to measure the position of an equilibrium reaction and are related by the equation, ∆G° = −RT ln(𝐾)"

• "A Lewis acid is a lone pair acceptor and a Lewis base is a lone pair donor."
• "When a Lewis base reacts with a Lewis acid a coordinate bond is formed."
• "A nucleophile is a Lewis base and an electrophile is a Lewis acid."

• "The expression for the dissociation constant of a weak acid (Ka) and a weak base (Kb)."
• "For a conjugate acid base pair, Ka × Kb = Kw."
• "The relationship between Ka and pKa is (pKa = -log Ka), and between Kb and pKb is (pKb = -log Kb)."

• "The characteristics of the pH curves produced by the different combinations of strong and weak acids and bases."
• "An acid–base indicator is a weak acid or a weak base where the components of the conjugate acid–base pair have different colours."
• "The relationship between the pH range of an acid–base indicator, which is a weak acid, and its pKa value."
• "The buffer region on the pH curve represents the region where small additions of acid or base result in little or no change in pH."
• "The composition and action of a buffer solution."

• "A voltaic cell generates an electromotive force (EMF) resulting in the movement of electrons from the anode (negative electrode) to the cathode (positive electrode) via the external circuit. The EMF is termed the cell potential (Eº)."
• "The standard hydrogen electrode (SHE) consists of an inert platinum electrode in contact with 1 mol dm-3 hydrogen ion and hydrogen gas at 100 kPa and 298 K. The standard electrode potential (Eº) is the potential (voltage) of the reduction half-equation under standard conditions measured relative to the SHE. Solute concentration is 1 mol dm-3 or 100 kPa for gases. Eº of the SHE is 0 V."
• "When aqueous solutions are electrolysed, water can be oxidized to oxygen at the anode and reduced to hydrogen at the cathode.
• "ΔGº = -nFEº. When Eº is positive, ΔGº is negative indicative of a spontaneous process. When Eº is negative, ΔGº is positive indicative of a non-spontaneous process. When Eº is 0, then ΔGº is 0."
• "Current, duration of electrolysis and charge on the ion affect the amount of product formed at the electrodes during electrolysis."
• "Electroplating involves the electrolytic coating of an object with a metallic thin layer."

Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions:

• "SN1 represents a nucleophilic unimolecular substitution reaction and SN2 represents a nucleophilic bimolecular substitution reaction. SN1 involves a carbocation intermediate. SN2 involves a concerted reaction with a transition state."
• "For tertiary halogenoalkanes the predominant mechanism is SN1 and for primary halogenoalkanes it is SN2. Both mechanisms occur for secondary halogenoalkanes."
• "The rate determining step (slow step) in an SN1 reaction depends only on the concentration of the halogenoalkane, rate = k[halogenoalkane]. For SN2, rate = k[halogenoalkane][nucleophile]. SN2 is stereospecific with an inversion of configuration at the carbon."
• "SN2 reactions are best conducted using aprotic, non-polar solvents and SN1 reactions are best conducted using protic, polar solvents."

Electrophilic Addition Reactions:

• "An electrophile is an electron-deficient species that can accept electron pairs from a nucleophile. Electrophiles are Lewis acids."
• "Markovnikov's rule can be applied to predict the major product in electrophilic addition reactions of unsymmetrical alkenes with hydrogen halides and interhalogens. The formation of the major product can be explained in terms of the relative stability of possible carbocations in the reaction mechanism."

Electrophilic Substitution Reactions:

• "Benzene is the simplest aromatic hydrocarbon compound (or arene) and has a delocalized structure of π bonds around its ring. Each carbon to carbon bond has a bond order of 1.5. Benzene is susceptible to attack by electrophiles."

Reduction Reactions:

• "Carboxylic acids can be reduced to primary alcohols (via the aldehyde). Ketones can be reduced to secondary alcohols. Typical reducing agents are lithium aluminum hydride (used to reduce carboxylic acids) and sodium borohydride."

• "The synthesis of an organic compound stems from a readily available starting material via a series of discrete steps. Functional group interconversions are the basis of such synthetic routes."
• "Retro-synthesis of organic compounds."

• "Stereoisomers are subdivided into two classes—conformational isomers, which interconvert by rotation about a σ bond and configurational isomers that interconvert only by breaking and reforming a bond. Configurational isomers are further subdivided into cis-trans and E/Z isomers and optical isomers."

• "Cis-trans isomers can occur in alkenes or cycloalkanes (or heteroanalogues) and differ in the positions of atoms (or groups) relative to a reference plane. According to IUPAC, E/Z isomers refer to alkenes of the form R1R2C=CR3R4 (R1 ≠ R2, R3 ≠ R4) where neither R1 nor R2 need be different from R3 or R4."
• "A chiral carbon is a carbon joined to four different atoms or groups."
• "An optically active compound can rotate the plane of polarized light as it passes through a solution of the compound. Optical isomers are enantiomers. Enantiomers are non-superimposeable mirror images of each other. Diastereomers are not mirror images of each other."
• "A racemic mixture (or racemate) is a mixture of two enantiomers in equal amounts and is optically inactive."

• "Structural identification of compounds involves several different analytical techniques including IR, 1H NMR and MS."
• "In a high resolution 1H NMR spectrum, single peaks present in low resolution can split into further clusters of peaks."
• "The structural technique of single crystal X-ray crystallography can be used to identify the bond lengths and bond angles of crystalline compounds."